Measurement in accounting is the process of deciding the monetary amount at which assets, liabilities, income, and expenses appear in financial statements. It sounds technical, but it directly affects reported profit, net worth, leverage, tax timing, and investor confidence. If you understand measurement, you can better read accounts, prepare reports, challenge assumptions, and avoid common reporting mistakes.

1. Term Overview

• Official Term: Measurement
• Common Synonyms: Accounting measurement, financial statement measurement, monetary measurement
• Alternate Spellings / Variants: Measurement basis, initial measurement, subsequent measurement, remeasurement
• Domain / Subdomain: Finance / Accounting and Reporting
• One-line definition: Measurement is the process of determining the monetary amounts at which items are recognized and carried in financial statements.
• Plain-English definition: Measurement means deciding the number to put in the accounts for an asset, liability, income, or expense.
• Why this term matters:
  A company’s numbers are only useful if they are measured properly. The same business event can produce different reported outcomes depending on whether the item is measured at historical cost, fair value, amortized cost, present value, or another basis.

2. Core Meaning

At its core, measurement answers one practical question:

“What amount should be reported in the financial statements?”

What it is

Measurement is the process of assigning a monetary amount to:

• assets
• liabilities
• equity items
• income
• expenses

Why it exists

Financial statements summarize thousands of transactions and conditions into numbers. To do that, accounting needs a disciplined way to convert real-world events into reportable amounts.

What problem it solves

Without measurement:

• assets could be recorded at arbitrary amounts
• liabilities could be understated or overstated
• profits would be inconsistent
• comparability between companies would suffer
• users of accounts would not know whether figures are reliable

Who uses it

Measurement is used by:

• accountants
• auditors
• CFOs and controllers
• investors and analysts
• bankers and lenders
• regulators
• valuation specialists
• standard-setters
• students and exam candidates

Where it appears in practice

You see measurement whenever a company must decide:

• the cost of a new machine
• the value of unsold inventory
• the carrying amount of a loan receivable
• the fair value of quoted investments
• the amount of an impairment loss
• the present value of a lease liability
• the amount of a provision for an obligation

3. Detailed Definition

Formal definition

In accounting and financial reporting, measurement is the process of determining the monetary amounts at which elements of the financial statements are recognized and carried.

Technical definition

Technically, measurement involves:

1. identifying the item being measured
2. identifying the applicable accounting standard or policy
3. selecting the required measurement basis
4. using relevant inputs and assumptions
5. calculating the amount
6. updating it when remeasurement or reassessment is required

Operational definition

In day-to-day reporting, measurement means:

• deciding which basis applies
• deciding when it applies
• gathering evidence and assumptions
• calculating the amount
• recording and disclosing it properly

A useful operational question is:

“At this reporting date, under this accounting framework, what amount should this item be carried at?”

Context-specific definitions

In external financial reporting

Measurement is about determining the amount shown in the statement of financial position and in profit or loss or other comprehensive income, depending on the applicable framework.

In auditing

Measurement refers to the reasonableness of recorded amounts, estimates, models, assumptions, and valuation techniques used by management.

In valuation practice

Measurement overlaps with valuation, but they are not identical. Valuation often focuses on estimating economic worth; accounting measurement focuses on the amount required by the reporting framework.

In broader finance

The word “measurement” can also mean measuring risk, return, performance, or exposure. In this tutorial, the main focus is accounting and reporting measurement.

4. Etymology / Origin / Historical Background

Origin of the term

The word measurement comes from roots associated with measuring, sizing, or quantifying. In accounting, it evolved into the idea of assigning monetary amounts to business events.

Historical development

Early bookkeeping

Traditional bookkeeping mostly relied on transaction prices. If you bought something for cash, the amount paid became the recorded amount.

Growth of industrial accounting

As business became more complex, accounting added:

• depreciation
• accruals
• inventory valuation
• provisions
• cost allocations

This expanded measurement beyond simple cash transactions.

Rise of standard-setting

Modern accounting frameworks recognized that different items may need different measurement bases. Over time, standards introduced:

• historical cost
• amortized cost
• fair value
• net realizable value
• present value
• value in use
• fulfilment value
• current cost

Shift toward mixed measurement models

Most modern frameworks do not use one single basis for everything. Instead, they use a mixed measurement model:

• some items at cost
• some at fair value
• some at amortized cost
• some at present value
• some at recoverable amount or lower of cost and NRV

Important milestones

Important conceptual milestones include:

• stronger distinction between recognition and measurement
• formal treatment of fair value
• wider use of present value techniques
• more detailed guidance on measurement uncertainty
• increased disclosure requirements around assumptions and estimation

How usage has changed over time

Older practice focused heavily on historical cost. Modern reporting still uses cost in many areas, but increasingly uses current or model-based measures when they provide more relevant information.

5. Conceptual Breakdown

Measurement is easier to understand if you break it into core components.

Component	Meaning	Role	Interaction with Other Components	Practical Importance
Item being measured	The asset, liability, income, or expense	Defines what is in scope	Drives which standard and basis apply	You cannot measure correctly if you have identified the wrong item
Unit of account	Whether you measure an individual item, a group, or a portfolio	Sets the measurement boundary	Affects impairment, valuation, and aggregation	A single asset and a cash-generating unit may produce different results
Measurement date	The date at which the amount is determined	Fixes timing	Market conditions and assumptions can change over time	Year-end measurement may differ from transaction-date measurement
Measurement basis	The method used, such as historical cost or fair value	Determines the logic of the number	Must match the standard and business circumstances	This is the biggest driver of reported amount
Inputs and assumptions	Prices, discount rates, expected cash flows, useful lives, default rates	Feed the calculation	More observable inputs usually increase reliability	Weak assumptions can distort statements
Initial vs subsequent measurement	First-time measurement versus later remeasurement	Determines whether the amount stays at cost, is amortized, or is updated	Subsequent rules often differ sharply from initial rules	Many errors come from applying initial rules at later dates
Measurement uncertainty	Degree to which the amount depends on estimates rather than direct observation	Affects reliability and disclosures	Higher uncertainty requires more judgment and often more disclosure	Important for investors, auditors, and regulators
Presentation and disclosure	How the measured amount and related judgments are communicated	Makes numbers understandable	Supports transparency around basis and sensitivity	A good number with poor disclosure can still mislead users

A simple way to remember the breakdown

Ask these eight questions:

1. What am I measuring?
2. At what level am I measuring it?
3. On what date?
4. Under which accounting rule?
5. Using which basis?
6. With what inputs?
7. How uncertain is it?
8. How will it be disclosed?

6. Related Terms and Distinctions

Related Term	Relationship to Main Term	Key Difference	Common Confusion
Recognition	Recognition and measurement usually occur together	Recognition asks whether an item should appear at all; measurement asks at what amount	People often treat them as the same step
Measurement basis	A sub-part of measurement	Basis means the method used, such as cost or fair value	“Measurement” is broader than “measurement basis”
Valuation	Closely related	Valuation often estimates economic worth; accounting measurement follows accounting rules	Not every valuation result is the accounting amount
Estimate	Often used within measurement	An estimate is an input or judgment; measurement is the overall process	People assume measurement must be exact
Fair value	One measurement basis	Fair value is market-based, not always entity-specific	Many think all modern accounting is fair value accounting
Historical cost	One measurement basis	Based mainly on transaction cost, usually adjusted over time	People wrongly assume cost never changes after purchase
Amortized cost	One measurement basis for certain financial instruments	Uses effective interest mechanics, not simple original cost	Often confused with straight-line allocation
Carrying amount	Result of measurement	Carrying amount is the reported balance after applying measurement rules	It is the outcome, not the process
Impairment	A remeasurement mechanism	Impairment reduces carrying amount when recoverable amount falls	People think impairment is separate from measurement, but it is part of it
Remeasurement	Later update of an amount	Remeasurement changes an amount after initial recognition	Often confused with correction of error

Most commonly confused terms

Measurement vs recognition

• Recognition: Should this item be in the accounts?
• Measurement: What number should be shown?

Measurement vs valuation

• Valuation: What might this item be worth?
• Measurement: What amount should accounting standards require us to report?

Measurement vs estimation

• Estimation: A tool used when exact amounts are unavailable
• Measurement: The full process, which may include estimation

7. Where It Is Used

Accounting

This is the primary context. Measurement is central to:

• initial recognition
• subsequent carrying amounts
• depreciation and amortization
• impairment
• provisions
• lease accounting
• financial instruments
• inventories
• investment property
• biological assets

Finance

Measurement affects:

• reported leverage
• return ratios
• covenant compliance
• earnings volatility
• net asset value
• risk reporting

Banking and lending

Banks and lenders care because measurement affects:

• collateral values
• debt covenants
• expected credit loss estimates
• interest income recognition
• capital adequacy calculations in regulated sectors

Valuation and investing

Investors use measurement to judge:

• whether reported earnings are high quality
• how much of net worth is based on observable market values versus models
• whether impairments are timely
• whether management uses aggressive assumptions

Business operations

Management uses measurement in:

• pricing and inventory decisions
• budgeting and forecasting
• asset replacement planning
• performance reporting
• M&A integration
• treasury and financing decisions

Policy and regulation

Regulators care because measurement affects:

• transparency
• market discipline
• prudential supervision
• investor protection
• comparability across issuers

Reporting and disclosures

Measurement appears in:

• accounting policy notes
• fair value hierarchy disclosures
• sensitivity analyses
• impairment notes
• expected credit loss disclosures
• inventory write-down disclosures

Analytics and research

Analysts and researchers examine measurement to understand:

• earnings quality
• balance sheet reliability
• hidden losses or gains
• comparability across sectors and geographies

8. Use Cases

1. Measuring property, plant, and equipment

• Who is using it: Accountants and controllers
• Objective: Record a machine, building, or equipment item correctly
• How the term is applied: Initial measurement typically starts with cost, including directly attributable costs; later measurement may use cost less depreciation and impairment, or revaluation if permitted by the framework
• Expected outcome: Reliable carrying amount and depreciation expense
• Risks / limitations: Wrong capitalization, wrong useful life, missed impairment, inconsistent componentization

2. Measuring inventory at period end

• Who is using it: Retailers, manufacturers, auditors
• Objective: Avoid overstating stock
• How the term is applied: Inventory is compared between cost and net realizable value, and the lower amount is used
• Expected outcome: More realistic inventory and profit reporting
• Risks / limitations: Outdated selling prices, missed obsolescence, poor costing systems

3. Measuring loans and bonds at amortized cost

• Who is using it: Banks, finance teams, treasury departments
• Objective: Report financial assets or liabilities over time using an effective yield approach
• How the term is applied: Premiums, discounts, fees, and interest are spread over the instrument’s life
• Expected outcome: More economically meaningful interest income or expense
• Risks / limitations: Incorrect effective interest rate, ignored credit loss allowance, wrong business model classification

4. Measuring investments at fair value

• Who is using it: Investment companies, funds, corporate treasury teams
• Objective: Report investments at current market-based amounts where required
• How the term is applied: Use quoted prices, observable inputs, or valuation models
• Expected outcome: Timely reflection of market conditions
• Risks / limitations: Market volatility, model risk, unreliable comparables, Level 3 subjectivity

5. Measuring impairment losses

• Who is using it: Management, auditors, valuation teams
• Objective: Ensure assets are not carried above recoverable amounts
• How the term is applied: Compare carrying amount with recoverable amount or recoverable cash flows, depending on the standard
• Expected outcome: Avoid overstated assets and delayed loss recognition
• Risks / limitations: Optimistic cash-flow forecasts, weak discount rate assumptions, delayed testing

6. Measuring lease liabilities

• Who is using it: Lessees, finance teams, auditors
• Objective: Record lease obligations properly
• How the term is applied: Future lease payments are discounted to present value at commencement and adjusted over time
• Expected outcome: Better visibility of financing obligations
• Risks / limitations: Wrong lease term, wrong discount rate, omitted payments, modification errors

7. Measuring provisions and obligations

• Who is using it: Companies with legal, environmental, warranty, or restructuring obligations
• Objective: Recognize realistic liabilities
• How the term is applied: Use best estimate, expected value, or present value where appropriate
• Expected outcome: More faithful liability reporting
• Risks / limitations: Bias in assumptions, low documentation quality, failure to update estimates

9. Real-World Scenarios

A. Beginner scenario

• Background: A freelancer buys a laptop for business use.
• Problem: She is unsure whether to record it at the sticker price, resale value, or expected usefulness.
• Application of the term: The laptop is initially measured at cost, including purchase price and directly attributable setup costs if applicable.
• Decision taken: She records the laptop at cost and then depreciates it over its useful life under her reporting policy.
• Result: Her accounts reflect both the purchase and the gradual consumption of the asset.
• Lesson learned: Measurement is not just about the day of purchase; it continues over time.

B. Business scenario

• Background: A clothing retailer has unsold winter jackets at year end.
• Problem: Fashion has changed, and likely selling prices are now below cost.
• Application of the term: Inventory is measured at the lower of cost and net realizable value.
• Decision taken: Management writes down the jackets to expected selling price minus selling costs.
• Result: Inventory and profit both decrease, but the statements become more realistic.
• Lesson learned: Correct measurement can reduce profit now but improve credibility.

C. Investor / market scenario

• Background: An investor compares two financial institutions.
• Problem: One has more assets measured at fair value, while the other holds more loans at amortized cost.
• Application of the term: The investor studies measurement bases to understand why one entity’s earnings are more volatile.
• Decision taken: The investor adjusts analysis for measurement differences before comparing profitability and book value.
• Result: The comparison becomes more meaningful.
• Lesson learned: You cannot compare reported numbers intelligently without understanding measurement.

D. Policy / government / regulatory scenario

• Background: A banking regulator reviews whether banks are recognizing credit losses on time.
• Problem: Delayed loss measurement can hide weakness in the system.
• Application of the term: Supervisors examine expected credit loss models, assumptions, and governance around measurement.
• Decision taken: The regulator requires stronger controls, validation, and disclosures.
• Result: Losses may be recognized earlier, improving transparency and resilience.
• Lesson learned: Measurement is not just an accounting issue; it can affect financial stability.

E. Advanced professional scenario

• Background: An audit team reviews an unlisted company’s Level 3 fair value for a private investment.
• Problem: No active market price exists, so management uses a discounted cash flow model.
• Application of the term: The team assesses the measurement basis, cash-flow forecasts, discount rate, control premium assumptions, and sensitivity disclosures.
• Decision taken: The auditors require adjustments to assumptions and expanded disclosure of uncertainty.
• Result: The reported fair value is reduced, and users get a clearer view of estimation risk.
• Lesson learned: A precise-looking number may still be highly judgmental.

10. Worked Examples

Simple conceptual example

A company buys office furniture.

• Purchase price: 50,000
• Delivery: 3,000
• Installation: 2,000

If these costs are directly attributable to getting the asset ready for use, the item is initially measured at:

50,000 + 3,000 + 2,000 = 55,000

This is a basic example of initial measurement at cost.

Practical business example

A retailer has 500 units of a product.

• Cost per unit: 120
• Expected selling price per unit: 110
• Selling costs per unit: 5

First compute net realizable value per unit:

NRV = 110 – 5 = 105

Now compare:

• Cost per unit = 120
• NRV per unit = 105

Inventory is measured at the lower amount, 105.

Total inventory value:

500 × 105 = 52,500

Original cost was:

500 × 120 = 60,000

Write-down required:

60,000 – 52,500 = 7,500

Numerical example: amortized cost

A company buys a bond for 95,000.

• Face value: 100,000
• Annual coupon: 5% of face value = 5,000
• Effective interest rate: 7%

Step 1: Opening carrying amount

Opening amount = 95,000

Step 2: Interest income using effective interest rate

Interest income = 95,000 × 7% = 6,650

Step 3: Cash received

Cash coupon = 5,000

Step 4: Closing carrying amount

Closing carrying amount =

95,000 + 6,650 – 5,000 = 96,650

Interpretation

Because the bond was purchased at a discount, the carrying amount increases over time as the discount unwinds.

Advanced example: impairment using value in use

A cash-generating unit has:

• Carrying amount: 230,000
• Fair value less costs of disposal: 190,000

Management estimates future cash flows:

• Year 1: 80,000
• Year 2: 70,000
• Year 3: 60,000
• Disposal proceeds at end of Year 3: 30,000

Discount rate: 10%

Step 1: Present value of cash flows

• Year 1 PV = 80,000 / 1.10 = 72,727
• Year 2 PV = 70,000 / 1.10² = 57,851
• Year 3 operating PV = 60,000 / 1.10³ = 45,079
• Year 3 disposal PV = 30,000 / 1.10³ = 22,539

Step 2: Value in use

72,727 + 57,851 + 45,079 + 22,539 = 198,196

Step 3: Recoverable amount

Recoverable amount is the higher of:

• Fair value less costs of disposal = 190,000
• Value in use = 198,196

So recoverable amount = 198,196

Step 4: Impairment loss

Impairment loss =

230,000 – 198,196 = 31,804

Interpretation

The asset group was overstated by 31,804 and should be written down.

11. Formula / Model / Methodology

Measurement has no single universal formula. Different items use different models. The most common are below.

1. Carrying amount under cost model

Formula:

Carrying amount = Cost – Accumulated depreciation/amortization – Accumulated impairment

Variables

• Cost: Initial amount capitalized
• Accumulated depreciation/amortization: Portion consumed over time
• Accumulated impairment: Write-downs for loss in recoverable value

Interpretation

This is common for property, plant, equipment, and certain intangibles under cost-based measurement.

Sample calculation

• Cost = 100,000
• Accumulated depreciation = 36,000
• Accumulated impairment = 4,000

Carrying amount:

100,000 – 36,000 – 4,000 = 60,000

Common mistakes

• forgetting directly attributable costs in initial cost
• using wrong useful life or residual value
• ignoring impairment indicators

Limitations

• may become outdated in inflationary or rapidly changing markets
• may understate current economic value

2. Present value model

Formula:

PV = Σ [CFₜ / (1 + r)ᵗ]

Variables

• PV: Present value
• CFₜ: Cash flow in period t
• r: Discount rate
• t: Time period

Interpretation

Used for lease liabilities, provisions, impairment models, and some fair value techniques.

Sample calculation

Three annual cash flows of 10,000 discounted at 8%:

• Year 1: 10,000 / 1.08 = 9,259
• Year 2: 10,000 / 1.08² = 8,573
• Year 3: 10,000 / 1.08³ = 7,938

PV =

9,259 + 8,573 + 7,938 = 25,770

Common mistakes

• using nominal cash flows with a real discount rate, or vice versa
• ignoring timing of cash flows
• selecting an unsupported discount rate

Limitations

• highly sensitive to assumptions
• difficult when cash flows are uncertain

3. Inventory measurement: lower of cost and NRV

Formula:

Inventory carrying amount = min(Cost, Net Realizable Value)

Where:

NRV = Estimated selling price – Costs to complete – Costs to sell

Variables

• Cost: Purchase or production cost under the applicable inventory method
• NRV: Expected recoverable selling amount

Sample calculation

• Cost = 50
• Selling price = 55
• Costs to sell = 8

NRV =

55 – 8 = 47

Carrying amount = lower of 50 and 47 = 47

Common mistakes

• using old selling prices
• ignoring selling costs
• failing to assess obsolescence item by item or by suitable grouping

Limitations

• requires judgment on expected realizable values
• can change quickly in seasonal industries

4. Amortized cost using effective interest method

Simplified movement formula:

Closing carrying amount = Opening carrying amount + Effective interest – Cash received or paid

For an asset, ignoring impairment for simplicity.

Variables

• Opening carrying amount: Beginning balance
• Effective interest: Opening balance × effective interest rate
• Cash received: Coupon or contractual cash flows received

Sample calculation

• Opening amount = 95,000
• Effective interest = 95,000 × 7% = 6,650
• Cash received = 5,000

Closing carrying amount =

95,000 + 6,650 – 5,000 = 96,650

Common mistakes

• confusing coupon rate with effective interest rate
• omitting fees, premiums, or discounts
• ignoring impairment requirements for credit loss

Limitations

• classification rules can be complex
• not appropriate for all financial instruments

5. Impairment measurement

Formula:

Recoverable amount = max(Fair value less costs of disposal, Value in use)

Impairment loss = Carrying amount – Recoverable amount
if carrying amount exceeds recoverable amount

Variables

• Fair value less costs of disposal: Market-based amount net of selling costs
• Value in use: Present value of expected future cash flows from use and disposal
• Carrying amount: Book amount before impairment

Sample calculation

• Carrying amount = 220,000
• FVLCD = 180,000
• VIU = 195,000

Recoverable amount = 195,000

Impairment loss =

220,000 – 195,000 = 25,000

Common mistakes

• overly optimistic forecasts
• using unsupported growth rates
• double-counting restructuring benefits not yet committed

Limitations

• model-heavy
• sensitive to discount rates and cash-flow assumptions

6. Fair value methodology

There is no single fair value formula for all assets. Common approaches include:

• Market approach: Uses quoted prices or market comparables
• Income approach: Uses discounted future cash flows
• Cost approach: Uses replacement or reproduction cost adjusted for condition

Common mistakes

• using unadjusted comparables when assets differ materially
• ignoring market participant assumptions
• presenting model outputs as if they were exact

Limitations

• may be difficult in inactive markets
• Level 3 inputs can be highly subjective

12. Algorithms / Analytical Patterns / Decision Logic

Measurement is often driven by a decision framework rather than a single formula.

1. Measurement selection decision logic

What it is

A step-by-step process for selecting the right measurement basis.

Why it matters

It reduces inconsistent treatment and reporting errors.

When to use it

Use it whenever an item is first recognized or reassessed.

Practical framework

1. Identify the item.
2. Identify the unit of account.
3. Determine which standard or policy applies.
4. Decide whether this is initial or subsequent measurement.
5. Identify the required or permitted basis.
6. Gather inputs, prioritizing observable evidence.
7. Calculate the amount.
8. Assess uncertainty and materiality.
9. Record the amount.
10. Provide required disclosures.

Limitations

Professional judgment is still needed, especially when standards permit choices.

2. Fair value hierarchy pattern

What it is

A framework that ranks inputs by observability:

• Level 1: Quoted prices in active markets for identical items
• Level 2: Observable inputs other than Level 1
• Level 3: Unobservable inputs

Why it matters

It helps users judge how reliable a fair value number may be.

When to use it

Whenever fair value measurement is required.

Limitations

A Level 3 amount may still be valid, but it carries more estimation risk.

3. Impairment trigger logic

What it is

A screening pattern for deciding when deeper measurement work is needed.

Why it matters

It prevents assets from remaining overstated.

When to use it

At each reporting date, or when indicators exist.

Common triggers

• falling market prices
• poor operating performance
• adverse legal or technological changes
• physical damage
• higher discount rates
• lower demand forecasts

Limitations

Some problems emerge gradually and may be missed if monitoring is weak.

4. Measurement uncertainty assessment

What it is

A framework for judging how sensitive a number is to assumptions.

Why it matters

Two identical-looking numbers may have very different reliability.

When to use it

For fair value, provisions, impairment, expected credit loss, and any estimate-heavy amount.

Tools often used

• sensitivity analysis
• scenario analysis
• back-testing
• model validation
• governance review

Limitations

Sensitivity analysis can create false confidence if key assumptions are omitted.

5. Classification-based measurement logic for financial instruments

What it is

A decision pattern linking classification and measurement.

Why it matters

Financial assets and liabilities are often measured differently depending on business model and contractual cash-flow features.

When to use it

For debt instruments, investments, receivables, and liabilities.

Limitations

Framework-specific rules can be technical. Always verify the applicable accounting standard.

13. Regulatory / Government / Policy Context

Measurement is heavily shaped by accounting frameworks, audit requirements, and sector regulation.

Major accounting standards and frameworks

Standard / Framework Area	Measurement Relevance	Typical Items Affected
Conceptual Framework	Explains measurement objective and bases	All financial statement elements
Fair value guidance	Defines fair value and valuation hierarchy	Investments, derivatives, acquired assets, some liabilities
Financial instruments standards	Determine amortized cost, fair value, impairment	Loans, bonds, receivables, derivatives
Inventory standards	Require measurement at lower of cost and NRV or equivalent framework rule	Raw materials, WIP, finished goods
PPE and intangible standards	Govern cost model, depreciation, amortization, possible revaluation under some frameworks	Machines, buildings, software, patents
Impairment standards	Require recoverable amount testing	CGUs, goodwill, long-lived assets
Lease standards	Use present value techniques for lease liabilities	Lessee obligations and right-of-use assets
Provision / contingency standards	Require best estimate or present value where relevant	Warranties, legal claims, decommissioning
Investment property / biological asset standards	May allow or require fair value in some cases	Rental property, biological assets
Public sector standards	Apply measurement principles in government reporting	Infrastructure, obligations, public assets

International / IFRS-oriented context

Under IFRS-style frameworks, measurement is a mixed model. Depending on the item, the framework may require or permit:

• historical cost
• amortized cost
• fair value
• value in use
• fulfilment value
• current cost
• lower of cost and NRV

US context

Under US GAAP, measurement is also mixed but often more topic-specific. Common areas